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孔子 KongZi

 

KongZi, also known as Confucius (551 – c. 479 BCE), born Kong Qiu (孔丘), was a Chinese philosopher of the Spring and Autumn period who is traditionally considered the paragon of Chinese sages, as well as the first teacher in China to advocate for mass education. Much of the shared cultural heritage of the Sinosphere originates in the philosophy and teachings of Confucius.His philosophical teachings, called Confucianism, emphasized personal and governmental morality, harmonious social relationships, righteousness, kindness, sincerity, and a ruler's responsibilities to lead by virtue.

Confucius considered himself a transmitter for the values of earlier periods which he claimed had been abandoned in his time. He advocated for filial piety, endorsing strong family loyalty, ancestor veneration, the respect of elders by their children and of husbands by their wives. Confucius recommended a robust family unit as the cornerstone for an ideal government. He championed the Silver Rule, or a negative form of the Golden Rule, advising, "Do not do unto others what you do not want done to yourself."

The time of Confucius's life saw a rich diversity of thought, and was a formative period in China's intellectual history. His ideas gained in prominence during the Warring States period, but experienced setback immediately following the Qin conquest. Under Emperor Wu of Han, Confucius's ideas received official sanction, with affiliated works becoming mandatory readings for career paths leading to officialdom. During the Tang and Song dynasties, Confucianism developed into a system known in the West as Neo-Confucianism, and later as New Confucianism. From ancient dynasties to the modern era, Confucianism has integrated into the Chinese social fabric and way of life.

Traditionally, Confucius is credited with having authored or edited many of the ancient texts including all of the Five Classics. However, modern scholars exercise caution in attributing specific assertions to Confucius himself, for at least some of the texts and philosophy associated with him were of a more ancient origin. Aphorisms concerning his teachings were compiled in the Analects, but not until many years after his death.

現存的《論語》共20篇,508則 。每篇篇名取自正文開頭,或“子曰”、“子謂”後首句的前二、三字,與篇目中的內容無關。按照習慣,通常把前10篇稱為“上論”,後10篇稱為“下論”。《論語》以〈學而〉為首。

 

《論語·衛靈公》

 

《論語·八佾》

  1. 學而第一(主要讲“务本”的道理,引导初学者进入“道德之门”)[9]

  2. 為政第二(主要讲治理国家的道理和方法)

  3. 八佾第三(主要记录孔子谈論礼乐)

  4. 里仁第四(主要讲仁德的道理)

  5. 公冶長第五(主要讲评价古今人物及其得失)

  6. 雍也第六(记录孔子和弟子们的言行)

  7. 述而第七(主要记录孔子的容貌和言行)

  8. 泰伯第八(主要记孔子和曾子的言论及其对古人的评论)

  9. 子罕第九(主要记孔子言论,重点为孔子的行事风格,提倡和不提倡做的事)

  10. 鄉黨第十(主要记录孔子言谈举止,衣食住行和生活习惯)

  11. 先進第十一(主要记录孔子教育言论和对其弟子的评论)

  12. 顏淵第十二(主要讲孔子教育弟子如何实行仁德,如何为政和处世)

  13. 子路第十三(主要记录孔子论述为人和为政的道理)

  14. 憲問第十四(主要记录孔子和其弟子论修身为人之道,以及对古人的评价)

  15. 衛靈公第十五(主要记录孔子及其弟子在周游列国时的关于仁德治国方面的言论)

  16. 季氏第十六(主要记孔子论君子修身,以及如何用礼法治国)

  17. 陽貨第十七(主要记录孔子论述仁德,阐发礼乐治国之道)

  18. 微子第十八(主要记录古代圣贤事迹,以及孔子众人周游列国中的言行,也记录了周游途中世人对于乱世的看法)

  19. 子張第十九(主要记录孔子和弟子们探讨求学为道的言论,弟子们对于孔子的敬仰赞颂)

  20. 堯曰第二十(本篇较为短小,疑有错漏。主要记录古代圣贤的言论和孔子对于为政的论述)

 

〈齊論篇章〉

  1. 知道第二十一

  2. 問王第二十二

「禮」的社會秩序

  • 禮,就是「節制」,宋明儒者也解作「理」。《司馬遷·太史公自序》有:「禮以節人,樂以發和。」我們來看孔子對於禮的闡釋:

    • 《論語·泰伯》:「子曰:『恭而無禮則勞,慎而無禮則葸,勇而無禮則亂,直而無禮則絞。』」

  • 禮,也是「真情」,而且在上位者必須作為人民的表率。所以孔子接著說:

    • 『君子篤於親,則民興於仁;故舊不遺,則民不偷。』

  • 禮,不是浪費鋪張,而是真情流露;寧願節儉簡陋,也不奢侈浮誇:

    • 《論語·八佾》:「林放問禮之本。子曰:『大哉問!禮,與其奢也,寧儉;喪,與其易也,寧戚。』」

    • 《論語·陽貨》:「子曰:『禮云禮云,玉帛云乎哉?樂云樂云,鐘鼓云乎哉?』」

  • 禮,是對天地萬物的尊重。藉由對禮法的好問,來表達自己對於天地的敬意:

    • 《論語·八佾》:「子入太廟,每事問。或曰:『孰謂鄹人之子知禮乎?入太廟,每事問。』子聞之,曰:『是禮也。』」

君子與小人

君子與小人雖然是以身份地位區分開來的,但孔子不認為這是唯一的差別,更重要的在於修養和境界。對此孔子有很多說明,如他說:“君子中庸,小人反中庸。”中庸(“不偏不倚,無過不及”),是修養的最高境界,同時也是方法,有著豐富而精微的內涵,並提出(“君子正其衣冠,尊其瞻視,儼然人望而畏之,斯不亦威而不猛乎”)的說法,表示端正服飾是君子的重要大事。近百年來,不少人反感於中庸,大概是將它誤解為同流合污、媚世自是、毫無原則的偽君子行徑,其實這樣的鄉愿也正是孔子所深惡痛絕的,他說:“鄉愿,德之賊也。”他認為,如果不能達到中庸,狂狷是次好的境界,畢竟“狂者進取,狷者有所不為”。

孔子又说:

  • “君子喻于义,小人喻于利。”

  • “君子博學於文,約之以禮,亦可以弗畔矣夫!”

  • “质胜文则野,文胜质则史,文质彬彬,然后君子。”

  • “君子坦荡荡,小人长戚戚。”

  • “君子食无求饱,居无求安,敏于事而慎于言,就有道而正焉,可谓好学也已。”

  • “君子道者三:仁者不忧,知者不惑,勇者不惧。”

  • “君子不以言举人,不以人废言。”

  • “君子泰而不骄,小人骄而不泰。”

  • “君子固窮,小人窮斯濫矣。”

  • “君子周而不比,小人比而不周。”

  • “君子和而不同,小人同而不和。”

  • “君君臣臣父父子子。”

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